Byzantine Empire

By the early fourteenth century, the Byzantine Empire had retained Asia Minor, the Balkans, Syria, Palestine, Egypt and North Africa. In addition, it had recovered Spain from the Visigoths, Italy from the Lombards and most of the southern coast of France from the Franks.

Its main rival remained Persia to the east, an empire roughly as strong and one of the three great powers, along with China, of the known world. Byzantium and Persia clashed, sometimes openly, but mostly manoeuvring quietly to gain an advantage over the other.